Ethical Issues in Supply Chain

International Pressure and Sanctions

International Pressure and Sanctions Introduction The apartheid system, which was in place from the late 1940s to the early 1990s in South Africa, was one of the worse examples of discrimination and racism by a government against its citizens. This system divided South Africans into first class and second-class citizens based on their racial orientation.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on International Pressure and Sanctions specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The minority white South Africans were afforded all the political privileges and given the status of first class citizens while the other races were treated as inferior. The South African government tried to justify this discriminative system to its citizens and the international community. However, local and international condemnation of the system grew over the 1960s with calls been made for the government to end this oppressive system. The relative importance of the domestic and international in brin ging an end to apartheid is debatable with some people arguing that black South Africans political participation in anti-apartheid movements played the biggest role while others argue that actions by the international community where the most significant in dismantling apartheid. This paper will argue that international pressure and sanctions were the most important factors in ending apartheid in South Africa. How International Action Contributed to Ending Apartheid The economic sanctions imposed on the apartheid government led to economic difficulties that made the apartheid system unfavorable. The goal of imposing sanctions against South Africa was to reduce the economic welfare of the rich white minority in the country and hence diminish the willingness of the country to persist in maintaining apartheid. In spite of the countrys mineral wealth and valuable geographic position, the international community was not willing to downplay apartheid (Thomson 114). Western powers encourag ed their citizens to disinvest in South Africa. This disinvestment by capital by foreigners led to a significant reduction in the wealth of the white minority therefore raising the costs of apartheid for the group that had benefited from the system. Kaempfer and Lowenberg note that the economic sanctions against South Africa resulted in a reduction of the GDP of the country (377). These negative economic outcomes led to a change in the behavior of the South African government in the desired direction. Economic sanctions contributed in the dismantling of apartheid by reducing the economic welfare of the white minority who were the main beneficiaries of the apartheid system. The isolation brought about by international pressure decreased government efficiency and the local support for apartheid. Led by the United Nations, many countries condemned the policy of apartheid and called for its end. Lulat (364) notes that many newly independent African countries put pressure on the Western powers to take action against the South African regime.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Efforts by the international community to pressure the South African Government to end apartheid were in play as early as 1963 when the US sort ways to induce the South African government to remove the evil business of apartheid from the continent of Africa (Duncan 38). The US and some European countries restricted the granting of travel visas to high-ranking political and military personnel within the South African government. In 1977, the US government recalled its Ambassador to South Africa and subsequently joined the rest of the world in condemning apartheid (Thomson 113). In addition to the effect that international pressure had on the white South African community, it also raised the expectations of black South Africans. International pressure demonstrated to the black com munity that the rest of the world supported their efforts towards ending apartheid. It showed that the international community supported the determination of the Africans to win full status and dignity in their country. The government therefore had a harder time maintaining and defending apartheid institutions in light of this anti-apartheid sentiment from the international community. International efforts against the Apartheid regime led to the imposition of an arms embargo that reduce the military capability of the South African government and increased the cost of equipping the military. Due to the perceived injustices of apartheid, the non-White groups in the country founded protest movements to fight for equal rights and freedoms with the whites. The government reacted aggressively to this protests using military force to suppress any opposition. Duncan observed that the growing government oppression in South Africa could only be countered by external pressures (42). The intern ational community therefore intervened to stop the government from getting the arms that it needed to form a well-equipped army to counter this growing African militancy. Its efforts to acquire this arms from the international market where thwarted by a UN Security Council resolution in 1977 that banned the shipment of arms to the South African Government. The United States, which is a major weapons trader in the world, adopted a complete embargo of military equipment to South Africa. Duncan notes that the US stopped supplying the South African government with all lethal goods and even terminated the sale of all military spare parts to South Africa (115). The South African government tried to counter this arms embargo by manufacturing its own arms. However, the locally produced weapons were costly and of a lower quality to those available in the international market. In addition to this, the cost of research and production led to financial strain by the government as funds were dive rted from important public institutions. This decreased the popularity of the apartheid policy even within members of the White population.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on International Pressure and Sanctions specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More International pressure forced the South African government to enter negotiations with the oppositions groups that were demanding political representation and justice. The apartheid policy had denied the non-White population any political power and the white minority were unwilling to reach a compromise. The prominent anti-apartheid South African cleric, Archbishop Desmond Tutu declared that while the objective of the African opposition movements was negotiation, the apartheid regime could not get to the table without concerted international pressure (Lulat 364). Through this pressure, the government was forced to listen to the troubles of the majority and react to them in a favo rable manner. Without the involvement of the international community, the South African government had no incentive to negotiate with its non-White population. Conclusion This paper set out to argue that international pressures and sanctions played the most significant role in ending apartheid in South Africa. To this end, it has highlighted the ways in which the international community contributed to the collapse of apartheid. Through international pressure and the use of punitive measures such as investment sanctions and trade restrictions and embargoes on supply of key goods, the international community was able to accelerate the ending of apartheid in South Africa. If the international community had not involved itself in South Africas affairs, the oppressive apartheid system would have continued for longer. Because of this international pressure and sanction, South African abandoned apartheid and adopted a system that ensured majority rule based on justice and equality. Duncan , Patrick. â€Å"Toward a World Policy for South Africa†. Foreign Affairs 42.1 (1963): 38-48. Web.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Kaempfer, William and Lowenberg Anton. â€Å"A Model of the Political Economy of International Investment Sanctions: The Case of South Africa†. KYKLOS Journal 39.3 (1986): 377-397. Web. Lulat, Yuni. United States Relations with South Africa: A Critical Overview from the Colonial Period to the Present. Peter Lang, 2008. Print. Thomson, Alex. â€Å"The Diplomacy of Impasse: the Carter Administration and Apartheid South Africa†. Diplomacy Statecraft 21.1 (2010): 107–124. Web.

Geologic Hazards Project Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Geologic Hazards Project - Research Paper Example The gradual shifting of the pole is believed to have been the reason for destruction of entire human civilizations. As this reversal takes place, the earthquakes augment and earthquake storms take place in the world. Furthermore, three new volcanoes are born at many places in the Pacific Ocean. NASA has recently found out that there is a break in the magnetic field of the Earth. These changes keep on building and concurrent. (Syzygyastro) The constant changes that go inside the surface of the Earth cause this reversal. The core of the Earth moves around a little faster than the crust of the Earth which is slowed by tidal dragging of the moon. The disparity in the rotation between the two layers produces the magnetic field. When the core rotates, the lines of magnetic field act as what takes place on the Sun’s surface as equator and sun have different rotations from the pole. The disparity of rotation of both of these surfaces creates a stretch in the lines of magnetic field so they wrap round and round the Earth or the sun. What happens is that magnetic field lines the field and recreates itself. The discrepancy of the rotation of Sun happens at a faster rate than the Earth so the magnetic cycle on average takes around 22 years in the Sun. The Earth takes a very long time for its periodic cycle due to the interaction of the sun, planets, and the moon and slower winding. These reversals of the field can take mi llions of years to take place. At present, Earth’s field lines are constantly breaking down, making a complicated pattern of hundreds of magnetic zones similar to the ones on the Sun. This violation in the earth/s magnetic allows the solar winds to go to the atmosphere of Earth. The consequence of these modifications will be auroras all across the Earth even at the equator. The second alteration is the diffusion to the

Cross-Cultural Communication Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

Cross-Cultural Communication - Essay Example Some say relations come before work regardless of the situation, whereas other cultures may not agree with this point.   Individuals should profoundly understand the differences between cultures before starting work in any multicultural organization at the global level, which is constantly becoming more common business practice today (LeBaron). This article enhances that time and space should be the powerful and effective tool in cross-cultural communication. Time perceptions is about punctuality and willingness to wait, in addition the time impact on, people is also refer as the speediness of verbal communication that how long people are keen to listen. Time and space as referred in the article can make a great difference in terms of the future aspiration and productivity. Being a student, I have come across many people from different cultural backgrounds (LeBaron). I have noticed that students from the Far East are much more conscious about time, and they are always quick in terms of assignments submission, project activities and time management since they strongly believe â€Å"time is money†. While, students from Asia are known for procrastination in their work, Western students are relatively more punctual and follow deadlines because they consider time as money. The issues that are caused by such cultural differences with respect to time and space should be co-ordinated in group meetings (LeBaron). I suggest that in order to get away with the issues of multiculturalism in a group project as mentioned above, it is necessary to conduct a briefing session for all the members of the group. This will help in understanding the goal and dimension of the group work. In this way, members of the group will be able to refine their abilities and decide which task to work on. It is also recommended that members of the group are

Gender roles. Roles of Men and Women in Society Essay

Gender roles. Roles of Men and Women in Society - Essay Example II. The biological make up of an individual within a society has long been used to determine how that person should behave †¢ Biology is not necessarily a determining factor in gender roles †¢ In many of the societies today, there is a tendency to ascribe roles according to the biological makeup of the individuals within them †¢ Men were given the positions of power, not because they could do better than women, but because of their biological makeup III. The society plays a major role in determining the gender roles of the individuals within it †¢ The parents of a large number of people in society determine the gender roles of their children and rigidly enforce them. †¢ Society is a powerful force in the lives of the individuals within it †¢ It is often extremely difficult for individuals to go against the roles which have been set for them by their own societies IV. Culture is another major factor that determines the gender roles of individuals in the societies within which they live. †¢ There are many different cultures around the world and each has its own expectations about what roles the members of each sex should undertake †¢ Other cultures cannot be judged according to the western standards because of the fact that while there may be similar cultures, there are others which are completely different †¢ In a globalized culture, men and women are considered to be equal and tend to be given equal opportunities, with each sex performing those tasks which were traditionally reserved for the other V. The various roles that are ascribed to the various genders are mostly determined by the society within which individuals live as well as by its culture. Biology only acts as a marker to determine how the society is going to socialize an individual to behave and it is not in itself a definer of gender roles Within the modern world, gender roles are starting to become insignificant Women can take up the roles traditionally reserved for men with the same efficiency and the reverse has also been proven to be true The gender roles are today slowly becoming blurred and they may cease to exist altogether in future It is a fact that gender roles have existed for almost as long as the human race has existed and it is quite possible that they will continue to exist in the foreseeable future. T hey are a part of the daily lives of individuals and are manifested within the society by observable factors such as how one behaves or appear. Gender roles can be considered to be patterns of feelings deemed appropriate or inappropriate because of one’s gender and they derive from the social expectations of how members of the different genders whether male or female, should behave. An example of this is if a person considers themselves to be female, then she would be expected to display the characteristics which are typically associated with being female, such as being gentle, dependent and expressive of their feelings. There are various factors that are used to determine the gender roles in society and the most important of these are biological, social, and cultural factors. One would state that the biological make up of an individual within a society has long been used to determine how that person should behave. However, there is yet to be proof of the fact that whether on e is male or female, he or she is born with the innate knowledge of the characteristics that are often ascribed to their gender (Zosuls et al 827). In

Nonlinear Narrative In Media

Nonlinear Narrative In Media Nonlinear or disruptive narrative is a technique used in storytelling where the events of a story are achronological, i.e. it is not in a chronological manner, and illogically placed. This method has been used in films, literature, video games and other narratives. In the field of video games, the meaning of the term is different as the stories get played out by the decisions made by the players interaction in the game. The world had come to know that it was during the 5th century BC that nonlinear narrative had come into existence. This monumental piece of literature work is none other than the Indian Epic, the Mahabharatha. The Mahabharata was written in an Indian language called Sanskrit and this major tale has played an important role in the religion of Hinduism, and also played a vital part in the upbringing of the cultures in the Indian subcontinent. This story talks about the human goals (Dharma or duty, Artha or purpose, Kama or pleasure or desire and moksha or liberation) where it explains the individuals relationship to the society and the world and the workings of karma or destiny. With 1.8 million words written, the Mahabharata is the longest epic poem in the world. The Illiad is another grand poem which is credited to Homer, also uses nonlinear narrative. Made in 8th century BC, this poem was set in the events of the Trojan War, which was a ten year siege by a congregation of Greek states led by King Agamemnon. The poem, although covers the final few weeks of the war, describes the battles which had taken part in the war and also depicts the arguments between King Agamemnon and the legendary warrior Achilles. The Illiad is the oldest known Western work in literature. These two poems have a common nonlinear narrative between them. They were the first works to feature the method of In Media Res (It is a latin phrase which in English translates into mid-affairs. This technique of narrative is when the story either begins in the middle or in its conclusion. It was introduced by the poet Horace.) and the first to implement the technique of using flashbacks (Analepsis which is the other word for flashback, is a method which is put in between a narrative and it acts as a tool to explain the events leading up to the current state of the story. It is generally used for a characters origin or major events which have occurred in the past.) From then on, novelists such as Virginia Woolf, William Faulkner, Marcel Proust and many others during the 1800s to 1900s played around with the nonlinear narrative, dumping the idea of writing a book in a linear fashion. In the Modern Day, the author Chuck Palahniuk, known for his book Fight Club, writes all his books in a nonlinear fashion. An example would be his book Survivor where the story goes backwards as the end is the starting point of the book and the conclusion of the book is the beginning. Examples of nonlinear novels: The Life and Opinions of Tristram Shandy, Gentleman by Laurence Sterne; Wuthering Heights by Emily Bronte; Catch 22 by Joseph Heller; The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie by Muriel Spark; Trainspotting by Irvine Welsh and Dictionary of the Khazars by Milorad Pavic. Films To define nonlinear storytelling in films is a bit of a task since various films uses the methodology of flashbacks or flashforwards in a linear storyline whereas nonlinear films most of the time includes a lot of linear sequences. Citizen Kane by Orson Welles is an example of a film where the storyline is in an achronological flashback narrative which is tagged as nonlinear. Experimentation of nonlinear narrative in films started in 1916. This was the era of Silent Films where the film is without any sound and the viewer only gets to see images of the film. Intolerance: Loves Struggle through the Ages by D.W. Griffith is the first film to try out nonlinear storytelling. This film is considered to be one of the masterpieces of its generation. This film was made because D.W. Griffiths previous film The Birth of a Nation apparently did not go down well with the people, stating that the film had a huge amount racist content. The film Un Chien Andalou (An Andalusian Dog) is a surreal film made by Salvador Dali and Luis Brunuel. This film was made in 1929 and is considered the first film to be in a constant state of nonlinearity. The film makes statements about the Church, art and society; which are left to open interpretation by the viewer. Other films made in this era which uses the concept of nonlinear narrative are LAge dor (The golden Age) again by Salvador Dali and Luis Brunuel, Strike by Sergei Eisenstein, Earth by Alexander Dovzhenko, Listen to Britain a documentary by Humphrey Jennings. After World War II, nonlinear narrative had evolved from its embryonic state and it was Jean Luc Goddard who famously stated, I agree that a film should have a beginning, a middle and an end but not necessarily in that order. His works have played a major influence in the method of nonlinear storytelling. Le Weekend (Week End) by Jean Luc Goddard is one of the first films to showcase the randomness of events in a film. Chelsea Girls which was made in 1966 by Andy Warhol was a film very similar to that of Le Weekend in a sense of techniques used. Hiroshima Mon Amour (1959), Last Year at Marienbad (1961) and Muriel (1963) by Alain Resnais are films which had experimented with the narrative and the time. Then Italian director Federico Fellini invented his own style of nonlinear narration in his films La Strada(1954), La Dolce Vita (1960), 8 and a half (1963), Satyricon (1969) and Roma (1972). From then on various film makers like Nicolas Roeg, Michelangelo Antonioni, Peter Greenaway, Ch ris Marker, Raul Ruiz and Agnes Varda have all experimented with nonlinear narration. Robert Altman from the United States incorporated the style of nonlinearity in his films such as McCabe and Mrs. Miller (1971), Nashville (1975), The Player (1992), Short Cuts (1993) and Gosford Park (2001). Woody Allen tried his hand in nonlinear narrative in Annie Hall (1977), Interiors (1978) and Stardust Memories (1980). The 1990s witnessed the growth of nonlinear films due to influential figure Quentin Tarantino who was the catalyst for this cause after his film Pulp Fiction (1994). Other significant works of disruptive narration are Atom Egoyans Exotica (1994); Terrence Mallicks The Thin Red Line (1998); Paul Thomas Andersons Magnolia (1999); and Karen and Jill Sprechers Thirteen Conversations About One Thing (2001). David Lynch had experimented by combining surrealism and nonlinear narrative in his films Lost Highway (1997), Mulholland Drive (2001) and Inland Empire (2006). While coming into and in the beginning of the 21st Century, filmmakers have been constantly applying their own nonlinear methods into their films frequently. Schizopolis (1996), Out of Sight (1998), The Limey (1999), Full Frontal (2002) and Che (2008) were all movies done by Steven Soderbergh. Gus Van Sants movies like Elephant (2003), Last Days (2005) and Paranoid Park (2007). Hong Kong director Wong Kar Wai with his own creative style in films tried his hands in nonlinear narrative in the films Days of Being Wild (1991), Ashes of Time (1994), Chungking Express (1994), In the Mood for Love (2000) and 2046 (2004). Mexican director Alejandro Gonzalez Inarritu has made all his films in a nonlinear fashion. Christopher Nolan uses the ideology of nonlinear narration the films Following (1998), Memento (2001) and The Prestige (2006). Memento followed a fragmented and reverse chronology narration in the film. This move was known as the film heading in the direction of post modernism storytelling in contemporary cinema. The narrative structure of the movie places the audience into the shoes of the protagonist. Therefore because of this structure, the viewers get turned into detectives and try to come up with their own solutions. TELEVISION In the east, Japanese animation or anime (As it is commonly known that the term anime is only referred to animations done by the Japanese or any of the eastern countries) implements nonlinear narration in The Melancholy of Haruhi Suzumiya, Yami to Boushi to Hon no Tabibito (Traveller of Darkness, The Hat and Books), Touka Gettan and Baccano (Italian word which means ruckus). In the series Baccano the story varies from each episode. The events of the anime take place in various settings from the 1700s to the 1930s. The stories are somehow related with each other although not directly with countless number of plots and it is up to the viewer to piece it all together. The television series Lost created by J.J. Abrams extensively use the methodology of nonlinear narration. Set on an island, all the episodes of Lost have scenes interjected in them with a flashback or flashforward which is related to the primary storyline of the episode. Damages another series too uses disruptive narration. The beginning of each season starts off with an event and then travels back six months earlier. Each of the episodes will feature the past, present and future which leads up to the main storyline. Television reality shows like Big Brother, indirectly uses the methodology of nonlinear narration because of its interactivity. The public gets to decide that one of the contestants would get eliminated from the show. This kind of interaction plays with the participants as it develops very interesting scenarios for the public to view. Similar series like Big Brother are Im a Celebrity Get Me Out of Here, Back To Reality, Cabin Fever and Uttaradhikar (The Inheritance) a television show from Bangladesh.

Othello †It Ranks High or Low? :: Othello essays

Othello – It Ranks High or Low?  Ã‚        Ã‚   William Shakespeare’s tragic drama Othello has been given high marks by some critics and low marks by others. Let us elaborate on this problem in this essay.    In the volume Shakespeare and Tragedy John Bayley explains why the modern audience feels so exasperated when viewing this play:    But Othello is not freed by this sense of his own situation: he has been caught in it as if in a snare. And instead of being freed by the hero’s consciousness of things, and sharing it with him, we are forced to stand outside Othello’s delusion. The play grips us in its own artifice of incomprehension. And for most onlookers, nowadays, the sensation seems to be more exasperating than it is either thrilling or painful. (200-201)    The feeling of exasperation on the part of the audience is not universal. Lily B. Campbell in Shakespeare’s Tragic Heroes explains the factor that made Othello significant among the tragedies of its time:    The Moor goes to the task of killing his wife in the name of justice;    Thy bed, lust-stain’d, shall with lust’s blood be spotted.    And in the second scene, the scene of the murder, he cries again as he looks upon the sleeping Desdemona and kisses her:    Oh, balmy breath, thou dost almost persuade Justice to break her sword!    It is this insistence upon the passion which makes men try to take the place of God, and by private revenge execute the laws of God that makes Othello significant in the tragedy of its time. Othello sees his acts as the expression of justice, worked out in the most perfect balance of deed and punishment. (172)    If the justice aspect of private revenge gave the play popularity then, what gives it fame today? Othello would appear to have a beauty about it which is hard to match – thus ranking the play high. Helen Gardner in â€Å"Othello: A Tragedy of Beauty and Fortune† touches on this beauty which enables this play to stand above the other tragedies of the Bard:    Among the tragedies of Shakespeare Othello is supreme in one quality: beauty. Much of its poetry, in imagery, perfection of phrase, and steadiness of rhythm, soaring yet firm, enchants the sensuous imagination. This kind of beauty Othello shares with Romeo and Juliet and Antony and Cleopatra; it is a corollary of the theme which it shares with them.

Gene Kranz Essay

Apollo 13 directed by Ron Howard is the story of the real space mission that took place in 1969. The three astronauts had always dreamed of landing on the moon but not long after the astronauts launched into space did they realize that the task would be near impossible due to an explosion of an oxygen tank. Getting home safe became their next mission. A character in this film from whom I learned something is Gene Kranz played by Ed Harris. I learned that thinking calmly helps you and people around you to think positively in hard situations and that instead of being scared and giving up in tough situations, you should think outside the box and find an solution. The audience learns from this about the importance of the idea(s) of leadership attributes and skills. Gene Kranz is an important character in Apollo 13 because even with a responsibility of the whole mission which is going to through a crisis, he was still calm and determined as ever. For example when the whole staff is tensed and worried, Kranz voice cut through a simple command, â€Å"Let’s work the problem, people but not make worse by guessing. This shows me that Ron Howard knew that every problem has a solution, or at least the damage could be managed, but you have to be methodical and work through the issues. Stop worrying, and start working. Another example of a lesson from Gene Kranz is When the NASA director said that this could be the worst disaster in the history of NASA, Kranz cut him off. â€Å"With all due respect sir, I think this is going to be our finest hour.† This shows that he more focused on the positive goal than think the negative. This positiveness also gives him and people around the confidence needed to complete the mission. This is how the sc ript and director show us the importance of leader’s positive attitude in tough situations and what I learn from him. Another reason Gene Kranz is a character from whom to learn is because he never portrays any fear or sense of panic that he might be feeling and always thinking clearly as to what can be done next. Always in control and remain in the moment. For example when he says â€Å"We’ve never lost an American in space, we’re sure as heck not going to lose one on my watch Failure is not an option! By this example Rom Howard shows us that leaders are supposed to have these attributes of Firmness and Flexibility. Being on a firm to do  something and think of flexibly ideas of how to do it. We could also see this when he says â€Å"I don’t care what anything was designed to do. I care about what it can do. As NASA’s scientists worked the problem, Kranz made them think outside the box. They broke down systems and used the parts to create new tools and systems that helped saved lives. By showing us these things which he does/says/ experiences, director emphasises the idea of never treating failure as a possible option or outcome which is also important in our own lives. Gene Kranz is an important character from Apollo 13 because the director uses him to teach me lessons about being able to think calmly in tough situations like an anchor in a storm and that to never be scared of failure and give up. These ideas are also importa nt to my own life because there may be a lot of tough situations coming up in my life, which may only be solved only if I don’t get scared and think calmly. If I get scared of failure and back off my life would end being a regrettable one.

10 Tips for Constructive Correspondence

10 Tips for Constructive Correspondence 10 Tips for Constructive Correspondence 10 Tips for Constructive Correspondence By Mark Nichol Business writing, or any communication for other than personal reasons, requires a higher standard of compositional conduct. Whether you are requesting service or complaining about it, or applying for a job or responding to an applicant, correspondents have certain expectations about how you approach them. Keep the following suggestions in mind the next time you craft a letter or an e-mail message. 1. Outline Rehearse what you have to say by making an outline or simply listing the points you wish to emphasize. If you have difficulty articulating your thoughts in writing, simplify your language; you can always make your message more sophisticated later (or not). â€Å"I want to know what you meant when you wrote (blank). Your letter was confusing because (blank)† is a good foundation on which to lay a lead-off such as â€Å"Please clarify your request in your letter about (blank). I was confused by the reference to (blank).† 2. Subject If you’re sending a letter, you need not state the subject of the correspondence as if it were a memo. But if the correspondence is an e-mail message, make the subject line meaningful. â€Å"Request for Purchase Records,† for example, is more likely to receive prompt attention than â€Å"Information Needed.† 3. Greeting Use the salutation â€Å"To Whom It May Concern† followed by a colon, not a comma only when all else fails. (â€Å"Dear Sir or Madam† is a relic of a bygone era.) If you cannot identify in advance the person to whom you should direct your correspondence (or someone who can direct you or your letter or e-mail message to the proper person), you are either writing to a bureaucracy or a business that does not value its constituents or customers and steadfastly resists your efforts to identify a specific recipient, or you have not made much of an effort to do so. 4. Intimacy and Impartiality If you are initiating contact with the recipient, refer to him or her, for example, as Mr. Smith or Ms. Jones; if the person’s gender is unclear from his or her name, address the recipient with the salutation â€Å"Pat Johnson,† followed by a colon. If you are replying, maintain a formal tone in your salutation if the recipient signed his or her initial correspondence with a full name; if, however, he or she signed off with â€Å"Pat,† for example, feel free to use the first name alone in the salutation of your response, and sign your letter or e-mail message informally. Be cautious, however, about being too intimate or personal in communicating with someone you don’t know or know only casually, or of assuming that the other person has certain political, ideological, or religious beliefs, even if the recipient’s affiliation implies sympathy with your own values. Remain professional even on a first-name basis or after one or more face-to-face encounters. 5. Leading Off State the purpose of the correspondence immediately. If you are thanking someone for a service rendered, say so outright and then go into details. If you are requesting service or clarification, do so at the outset. If you have a complaint or grievance, begin by describing the matter. 6. Tone Use respectful language. If you are angry or frustrated or disappointed, it is appropriate to write just that, but do not attack the recipient or the recipient’s company or organization. Simply detail your grievances and state what you would like the recipient to do to resolve the issue. Be confident and/or firm, but take care that you do not come across as arrogant, condescending, or demanding, and above all, even if you are writing a complaint or protest, be courteous. 7. Perspective Effective correspondence recognizes the proper point of view or emphasis. A letter or e-mail message of complaint that starts out â€Å"Your store has lousy service† may prompt the same results as â€Å"I wish to complain about the poor service I received at your store yesterday,† but it’s rude. Rather than making a blanket and perhaps inaccurate assumption, simply describe your experience and stick to the facts. If you’re seeking employment, or asking for a favor, emphasize the recipient, not yourself. You will of course state what you have to offer the company or what you would like to receive from it, but put the recipient first: â€Å"World Wide Widgets is highly regarded in the widget industry, and my professional goal is to start at the top† is more appealingly audacious than â€Å"I believe that I have much to offer World Wide Widgets.† 8. Language Write in a professional tone, but avoid stiffly formal wording. Use clear, concise language that conveys your message. Spell out acronyms, eschew abbreviations, and favor transparent terms over jargon and standard usage over slang. 9. Form and Length Monitor and minimize sentence and paragraph length. If the recipient becomes fatigued because of overlong sentences and blocky paragraphs (or obtuse language or error-ridden text), you are less likely to achieve the desired outcome. Review your correspondence not only for errors but also for excessive length. A letter or e-mail message that continues for more than a few paragraphs of a few lines each is likely to be a self-defeating message. Respect your recipient by rereading your correspondence several times, looking for opportunities to make your message more concise, omit redundancy, and eliminate superfluous content. 10. Conclusion In closing, concisely restate the purpose of the letter, and specify the results you hope for. Write something like â€Å"Please provide the requested information† or â€Å"Please clarify what I need to submit, and when, so that I may satisfy your request.† If your request is constrained by a tight deadline, try to communicate, if applicable, how a prompt response will benefit your recipient, or other parties, as well as you. If you are in no hurry and the person will be doing you a favor, tack on a relaxing phrase such as â€Å"at your convenience.† In either case, remember to thank the recipient, but be sure that your gratitude is sincere and not overbearing or stinting. â€Å"Thanking you in advance,† for example, implies that you can’t be bothered to follow up with a note of gratitude after the recipient has complied with a request. â€Å"Thank you† is sufficient. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Business Writing category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:100 Whimsical WordsRound vs. AroundDrama vs. Melodrama

buy custom Student Assessment and Program Evaluation Process essay

buy custom Student Assessment and Program Evaluation Process essay The gathering of information by educators on student learning outcomes has been going on for several years. Some of the terms that have been used to describe this process are observing, examining, testing, quizzing, measuring, evaluating, appraising and assessing, but the primary goal of determining the educational achievement of students has remained constant. According to Popham (1999), assessing the students learning goals of professional development is a more complex process than most people anticipate. This is because it entails more than simply documenting students current learning status. Changes in students are the components of most development goals and more specifically, they involve improvements or positive changes. This shows that relevant information must be gathered and at appropriate points in time. To determine whether the students are improving, it may be necessary to assess them at the point of entry and then at a later point. Comparisons with other students may al so be necessary to isolate the effects of the professional development program (Johnson Johnson, 1994). Without knowing the students position at the beginning or without comparing them with others in the same level, it might be difficult to determine if any improvement or change has actually occurred. Gathering information at a later point is also important to measure retention and long time learning (Popham, 1999). The intended student learning goals of a program are usually the basis of determining the procedures to be used in collecting evaluation information. The outcomes to be measured can either be cognitive, affective or psychomotor (Popham, 199). In any educational program, the procedures and instruments used to assess the programs effects are central. Teachers have several ways of measuring students learning and the choice of an assessment procedure will depend on the stated objectives. This paper will critically evaluate the standardized tests and other alternative assessment programs. Importance of Assessment According to Linn Gronlund (2000), measurement refers to assigning numbers to certain characters of people, objects or events according to a rule governed system. In a classroom context, the rules that are used in assigning the numbers will normally create a ranking that shows how much of the attribute different students possess. They also defined evaluation as the making judgments about the worth or value of a set of measures using a rule governed system. It is important to assess students learning to provide all involved parties with a clear summary of how the student has managed to meet the teachers goals. Assessment of students is also important in order to monitor their progress. Teachers need to know whether their students synthesize their instruction and their understanding of all the material covered over time. This enables the teacher to make arrangements for students whose understanding is slower or faulty, such as remedial instruction (Linn Gronlund, 2000). Discovering that a student has any difficulty in understanding, and cannot learn at the same pace, like the rest of the students, it allows the teachers to decide on the appropriate and timely course of action. Other positive effects on various aspects of learning and instruction also arise from assessing a students performance. According to Brookhart (2000), classroom assessment directs students on what is important to learn, influences their motivation and understanding of competence. Assessment also structures students approaches to personal study and fosters the development of improved learning strategies and skills. It is one of the most potent forces influencing learning. Standardized Tests Goals and Strengths Commercially available standardized tests are commonly used by many programs to measure academic achievement of the students. Standardized tests are administered and scored in a standard or consistent manner. They are composed of a set of open ended or constructed responses items meant to measure higher degree of cognitive skills (William, 2006). The manner of scoring is usually predetermined and the procedures, conditions of administration and the interpretations consistent and standard. This consistency in administration and scoring allows more reliable comparison of results across test takers. The use of standardized exams in the U.S started in the 20th century after the Second World War. This was contributed by the need to standardize the highly de-centralized education system. The design of standardized tests is to provide the best match possible to what is viewed as the typical curriculum at a specific grade level. They provide quantifiable information (scores, proficiency levels, etc.) and outcomes that can be used in screening programs, for example, in identifying students whom may require additional assessment (Silbert Hintze, 2005). Using standardized tests is also advantageous because they provide information on a students areas of strength and weakness. Standardized tests also allow a comparison between a student and his peers in the same grade or age, and hence, assess development. These tests can also be used to assess a students progress over time, for instance, by re-administering a test after an intervention or a remedial program. The results of these tests can also be used to generalize a students skills. The results of one test can also be used to measure whether a student is improving uniformly by comparing one subject results with results of a different subject (Silbert Hintze, 2005). Critics Many people are of the view that standardized tests are important because they help measure students using a consistent process, teachers are held more accountable and it becomes easier to understand where problems occur. However, there has been criticism on the social and cultural repercussions of standardized tests. Becker (2001), argues that since these tests are designed by people in a position of power, it is possible for cultural bias against the have nots to arise. Since high performing schools are rewarded, while poorly performing schools are sanctioned by the current system, critics propose that standardized tests reward those at an advantage while the disadvantaged continue to hurt. This system is viewed to be exacerbating the race and class divide in the society through the education system (Burns, Dean Klar, 2004). Another concern is the increasing pressure on teachers to produce high test results. This comes about since teachers will teach for the test purposes instead of exploring approaches that may not produce results onpaper. Research on student achievement has highlighted problem associated with over-reliance on standardized tests. Such tests are now administered at every grade level and success or failure of programs defined in terms of test scores. Teacher and administrator salaries and their job securities are also linked to student performance in the standardized tests. The main areas of criticism are the content of assessment, formatting of items and item bias (Fuchs et al, 1991). Standardized tests generally often rely on multiple-choice questions. This item format provides for greater coverage of content and objective as well as efficient scoring. However, the item of interest by the format is the identification of the right answer. This type of response does not necessarily correspond to the type of responses regularly exhibited by students in the classroom, for example, the acquisition and synthesis of information (Deno, 2003). If the students are not familiar to the structure within which they are required to respond by the item format, then, their test performance may be affected. In another scenario, a student may identify the correct form when it appears as a discrete item in a test format, but use the form incorrectly in communication contexts. In this case, the results of a standardized test may make a student appear more proficient than performance would show (Shapiro, 2004). Inclusion of items that are biased against some kinds of students has also been a cause for criticism. These include ethnic minorities, limited English proficient, rural or inner city students. This criticism is based on the fact that the items reflect the culture, language, and/or the style of learning of the middle class majority (Shapiro, 2004). Test companies have endeavored to remove culture based items in tests, but this omission of questions from a meaningful context has been challenging for minority students. There are arguments that this method only measures superficial knowledge or learning. This is because students can easily cram what they think will appear in the test and fail to give other areas much attention. Standardized tests may also fail to match specific objectives and goals of a program or institution (Klecker, 2000). This therefore makes them more unlikely to provide the most appropriate way to evaluate the program. Criterion referenced data is considered more useful than norm-referenced data, the type produced by standardized tests. This arises from the premises that norm-referenced data does not clearly show the progress of a student over time. Criterion based data also allows easy administration of pre and post tests to measure development, while a standardized test may be cost prohibitive to administer such (Becker, 2001). Norm data may use norms rather than true national sample, thus making it unfair to those taking it. Another challenge is that it may prove difficult to isolate what changes are required since it is more summative than formative. This makes it difficult to identify areas of weaknesses and develop means to assist students with difficulties. In addition, receiving the results on time is also a challenge (Brookhart, 2000). Critics argue that the measures used in standardized tests fail to inform instruction adequately. For some students with disabilities, the standardized administrations may not be possible. Some accommodations may need to be done to allow the disabled students to take some test in the established standardized way (Becker, 2000). However, these accommodations can become modifications to then trait under measurement. The items used in standardized tests are also frequently unrelated to the behaviors and tasks required in a classroom setting. Recommendations for Improvement Non cognitive factors such as fatigue, attention, anxiety, can influence the test results taken at one point in time. These results will therefore be a reflection of the students ability or behavior at that point in time. The results of standardized tests also fail to provide the necessary information required in restructuring curricular or instructional change (Gay Airasian). These procedures also prevent the examiner from determining conditions under which the students performance may improve. Students with a language deficit can be used better to explain the shortcomings of this system. Assessing the performance of these students on their language proficiency will be unfair since their level of performance may be higher if instruction is delivered using a language they are proficient in (Popham, 1999). The goal of education is to produce morally developed citizens who fit well in the society. Education also provides an individual with an opportunity to develop skills and learn how to solve problems. Since people have different skills and abilities, it is important to acknowledge this and provide different forms of evaluating student achievement to avoid bias (Griffin, 1994). Measuring the cognitive (knowledge and understanding), affective (attitudes, beliefs and dispositions) and psychomotor (skills, behaviors and practices) outcomes of a program is important. Cultural, racial, class and gender differences must be taken into account by any assessment task or procedure. In this context, there are strong arguments favoring educators considering using alternative methods of assessing students and evaluating the program (Klecker, 20000. Even as educators continue to use standardized tests, it is necessary to supplement them with other types of assessments. Such additional forms of assessment are; Group Tasks or Activities Student learning can alternatively or supplementary be assessed by their performance on group tasks or activities. For instance, if the written test covered 25 of the 50 items covered, then the students can be put into groups and the remaining 25 items covered. These groups are composed of students who work together to tackle a complex problem or carry out a detailed experiment. The structuring of an appropriate group activity is such that each student has a vital role in the task. Group tasks, like any other authentic cooperative learning activities, should include a combination of individual accountability and group responsibility (Johnson Johnson, 1994). A popular design of group tasks is assigning students to perform an activity as a group. Each student is then expected to produce a written product based on that experience. Most group tasks and activities are used by individual teachers as part of their instructional process, but some large scale assessment systems include them as well. As explained by Popham (1999), they provide information on two key learning goals: They give information on a students ability to apply skills to produce outcomes that can be evaluated. They show a students ability to work with others in a team to find solutions to problems. However, it is important to address the limitations of group tasks and activities. Ensuring involvement of all students in developing group tasks and activities can prove challenging and time consuming (Popham, 1999). Scoring students responses can also be time consuming especially if the class is a large one. With proper planning, group tasks and activities are the best way to assess students if involving students in team work is one of the cognitive goals. Group tasks can also provide an important source of information on complex learning results when paired with specific scoring criteria that students are taught before the group activity (Klecker, 2000). Cooperative groups enhance a students understanding of concepts through interaction with peers verbally. They also provide information to the teacher on the cognitive processes students employ in giving responses. Group tasks are also an important aspect in reinforcing the learning environment in a classroom (Johnson Johnson, 199 4). Portfolios and Other Collection of Students Work These are compilations of students work that show what they have achieved so far. Most portfolios include collections of students written papers and other works completed in their process of learning (William, 2006). These collections demonstrate the progress of a student over the years. This form of assessment encourages the participation of all interested individuals (teachers, students, parents) in the documentation of the learning process. The papers are derived from a students daily classroom work. It involves taking samples of a students work, recording of students observations of learning experiences, and evaluation of students processes and outcomes. Although information from this type of assessment can be used for grading purposes, the main goal is to improve the instruction methods and students learning (Shapiro, 2004). Curriculum Based Assessment Although it falls under criterion-referenced testing, curriculum based assessment is considered an alternative to traditional standardized norm-referenced academic testing. It refers to a measurement that relies on direct observation and recording a students performance in the local curriculum as a basis of gathering information to make instructional decisions (Deno, 2003). Curriculum based assessment (CBA) has also been termed as direct assessment of educational skills, and is based on the assumption that assessment should be on what has been taught. CBA involves repeated measurement of a students academic skills (Linn Grolund, 2000). In each area of learning, probes are selected and used to gauge student performance. The probes are developed from curricular materials available in the students immediate learning environment. CBAs therefore provide a structured method to assess a students performance based on curricular assignments used in their actual learning environment (Brookhar t, 2000). The basic argument underpinning this assessment approach is that in evaluating their progress, students should be observed in their academic environment. Dynamic Assessment This refers to a type of learning assessment that makes use of an active teaching process. The goal of this process is to provide a modification in an individuals cognitive functioning and observe the changes that result in the examinees learning and problem solving strategies. The main goals of dynamic assessment are to: Assess the ability of a student to identify the principles behind a problem and use this understanding to provide a solution. Assess the most appropriate type and amount of teaching required to teach a student a specific principle. Understand any cognitive deficits and non cognitive factors that help explain failure in students performances and whether teaching can modify such factors (Gay Airasian, 1999). Dynamic assessment is a contrast of standardized assessment where examiners present items to examinees without providing any guidance or any other form of intervention designed to improve the students performance (Brookhart, 2000). In static assessment, an individuals deficits and disabilities are accepted and modification is done on the environment to allow the person work within the identified limitations (Johnson, Johnson Holubec, 1994). On the contrary, dynamic assessment is based on active modification where efforts are made to remediate the deficits or provide the individual with alternative strategies to solve probes to supplement their areas of weakness. Conclusion High stakes testing is linked to overreliance on standardized tests as the primary means of assessment and as the principle source of curriculum content. These high stakes testing poses critical consequences to students since use of a single measure (standardized test score) may determine graduation or promotion to the next level. Instructors are now held accountable of students performances (Becker, 2000). Without doubt, testing and accountability are important aspects of a program since assessment practices are the key to accountability and improved teaching processes. However, opposition arises from the use of a single measure of assessment through standardized tests. The decisions regarding progress, promotion and gradation using a single indicator to measure an individuals learning violate the ethics of teaching. The higher the stakes for testing, the greater the emphasis teachers will place on test preparation and teaching to the test as opposed to meaningful learning. Assessment should be driven by innovative curriculum design and effective teaching practices. Other types of assessments should be used to supplement standardized tests to enhance the spirit of research among students. As asserted by Becker (2001), no clear evidence exists that high test scores reflect actual improvement in student learning either at the individual or group level. No single measure can be used as a definitive measure of a students knowledge. Student assessment is constructive if the educational approaches used are research oriented and emphasize on equity in the academic processes. Not all students demonstrate well what they have learnt using standardized tests, biased assessment, policies and practices should not be used since they limit learning opportunities for individuals and hinder curriculum development and teaching. Buy custom Student Assessment and Program Evaluation Process essay

Should crime prevention be a priority for the criminal justice system Essay

Should crime prevention be a priority for the criminal justice system - Essay Example (Pfeiffer, p 55, 2003) A Research conducted by the Heart Research Associates Inc. on the perception of the public on crime prevention found that majority of the people believed in a more pro-active rather than reactive approach. This research was conducted in the year 2002. But ten years ago, when the public was asked about what they thought about crime prevention, 42% said the criminal justice system should focus on punitive action while 48% supported crime prevention. These statistics have changed drastically with time. In 2002, when a similar research was conducted by the same research company, it was found that 65% of the public believe in dealing with root causes while 32% wanted more severe measures to take precedence in the criminal justice system. The survey also indicated the following preferences. It should be noted that most of the time, there are cases in which people break the law because they have no where else to turn to. Such people normally come from deteriorating neighbourhoods. They feel that there is not much that can be done about their situation and they opt to choose crime as their only means for survival. Most of these criminals normally have very low educational backgrounds. Consequently, their options in the formal employment sector are quite limited. They need to earn a source of livelihood and still have to meet their daily needs. However, the public only offers them temporary jobs that do not pay as much. Some individuals may feel the need to deal with this lack of necessities through crime. Overly, the underlying problem is education, if the government was to invest in education of such criminals then there would be no need to commit crimes and all the other issues will fall into place. (Maguire, p 207-265, 2000) Most criminals commit their crimes because their neighbourhoods make it easy for them to do so. In most Cities, there are certain localities that have been ignored by the governing

The House of Tata Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

The House of Tata - Term Paper Example Keeping this in mind, it was obvious for Tata to take certain new initiatives such as promoting Tata brand collectively for all group companies; find a strong partner for joint ventures; groom young leaders in-house and so on. Creating a unified brand by Tata Sons is certainly a strategic move with long-term ramifications. It is true that Tata name itself is a guarantee of quality among Indian consumers but in a free market regime, Tata group of companies will have to compete with formidable international brands in several segments of the businesses that include automobiles, chemicals, domestic appliance business, and many more. Promoting Tata brand will consolidate brand equity not only in the national but also international market too. It is true that certain companies in the Tata fold such as Indian Hotels does not use Tata name because ‘Taj Group of Hotels’ (the way it is known as) has itself become a name to reckon with in the hotel business in India; however, while raising money from abroad, the Indian Hotel did exploit Tata name while conveying to international community and that itself is a proof that Tata is a brand that each group company would always like to identify with at some point of time. The cost that each company will have to pay to Holding company, Tata Sons, is certainly a fraction of the benefits that they will derive nationally and internationally in the long run. This is a much required initiative on part of Tata Sons unifying all the companies with a common brand. Similarly, divesting a 20 percent stake in Tata Industries Limited to the Jardine Matheson of Hong Kong is another bold and strategic move. With the economic liberalization, Tata knew that retailing and distribution, financial services businesses in India would grow at a rapid pace and they would need a partner that possessed not only rich experience in such businesses but also ready to invest substantial sums in new ventures. Jardine group of Hong Kong was certai nly a perfect choice as a partner for many new ventures that Tata Industries was contemplating to embark on with the long term view of strengthening the corporate portfolio. While India moved decisively to a free market economy, the bountiful of opportunities emerged for large houses. The house of Tata was no exception to it. Ratan Tata was quick to realize that they would need a plenty of young talents if they needed to grow at fast pace taking advantage of the numerous opportunities that were lurking ahead. Keeping this perspective in mind, Ratan Tata launched Tata Administrative Services (TAS). The sole purpose was to groom future leaders hiring them young rather than recruiting people tainted with ‘outside culture’, it was a much better foresight to train and nurture young talents in-house. TAS was designed such that young management graduate â€Å"would gain exposure to three different industries through planned job rotation within the Tata companies" (Khanna, Pal epu and Wu, 8). The program was designed to "foster leadership, teamwork and group values" (Khanna, Palepu and Wu, 8). This way, not only young management recruits will be nurtured with required management skills but also be groomed with proper leadership qualities imbibing the spirit of 'Tata culture' at a fairly young age. After all, Tatas have been hugely popular in India because of their good quality products and ethical business practices for last several decades and that spirit must continue in